Minor 3

BIOPHARMACEUTICS & PHARMACOKINETCS

Introductiont to biopharmaceutics:
Passage of drugs across biological barrier (passive diffusion, active transport, facilitated diffusion, ion-pair formation and pinocytosis); Factors influencing absorption- biological, physico-chemical, physiological and pharmaceutical; Drug distribution in the body, plasma protein binding.

Pharmacokinetics:
Significance of plasma drug concentration measurement. Compartment model- Definition and Scope. Pharmacokinetics of drug absorption - Zero order and first order absorption rate constant using Wagner-Nelson and residual methods. Volume of distribution and distribution coefficient. Compartment kinetics- One compartment and two compartment models. Determination of pharmacokinetic parameters from plasma and urine data after drug administration by intravascular and oral route. Clearance concept, mechanism of renal clearance, clearance ratio, determination of renal clearance. Extraction ratio, hepatic clearance, biliary excretion, extra-hepatic circulation. Non-linear pharmacokinetics with special reference to one compartment model after I.V. drug administration.

Clinical Pharmacokinetics:
Definition and scope: Dosage adjustment in patients with and without renal and hepatic failure; Design of single dose bio-equivalence study and relevant statistics; Pharmacokinetic drug interactions and their significance in combination therapy.

Bioavailability and bioequivalence:
Measures of bioavailability, Cmax, tmax, Keli and Area Under the Curve (AUC); Design of single dose bioequivalence study and relevant statistics; Review of regulatory requirements for conducting bioequivalent studies. Biopharmaceutical Classification System (BCS) of drugs.

PHARMACOGNOSY
Sources of Drugs:
Biological, marine, mineral and plant tissue cultures as sources of drugs;

Classification of Drugs:
Morphological, taxonomical, chemical and pharmacological classification of drugs;

Study of medicinally important plants belonging to the families with special reference to:

Apocynacae, Solanaceae, Rutacease, Umbelliferae, Leguminosae, Rubiaceae, Liliaceae, Graminae, Labiatae, Cruciferae, Papaveraceae;

Cultivation, Collection, Processing and Storage of Crude Drugs:

Factors influencing cultivation of medicinal plants, Types of soils and fertilizers of common use. Pest management and natural pest control agents, Plant hormones and their applications, Polyploidy, mutation and hybridization with reference to medicinal plants.

Quality Control of Crude Drugs:
Adulteration of crude drugs and their detection by organoleptic, microscopic, physical, chemical and biological methods and properties.

Introduction to Active Constituents of Drugs:
Their isolation, classification and properties.

Systematic pharmacognostic study of the followings:
CARBOHYDRATES and derived products:
agar, guar gum acacia, Honey, Isabagol, pectin, Starch, sterculia and Tragacanth;

Lipids:
Bees wax, Castor oil, Cocoa butter, Codliver oil, Hydnocarpus oil, Kokum butter, Lard, Linseed oil, Rice, Bran oil, Shark liver oil and Wool fat;

RESINS:
Study of Drugs Containing Resins and Resin Combinations like Colophony, podophyllum, jalap, cannabis, capsicum, myrrh, asafoetida, balsam of Tolu, balsam of Peru, benzoin, turmeric, ginger;

TANNINS:
Study of tannins and tannin containing drugs like Gambier, black catechu, gall and myrobalan;

VOLATILE OILS:
General methods of obtaining volatile oils from plants, Study of volatile oils of Mentha, Coriander, Cinnamon, Cassia, Lemon peel, Orange peel, Lemon grass, Citronella, Caraway, Dill, Spearmint, Clove, Fennel, Nutmeg, Eucalyptus, Chenopodium, Cardamom, Valerian, Musk, Palmarosa, Gaultheria, Sandal wood;

Phytochemical Screening:
Preparation of extracts, Screening of alkaloids, saponins, cardenolides and bufadienolides, flavonoids and leucoanthocyanidins, tannins and polyphenols, anthraquinones, cynogenetic glycosides, amino acids in plant extracts;

FIBERS:
Study of fibers used in pharmacy such as cotton, silk, wool, nylon, glass-wool, polyester and asbestos.

Study of the biological sources, cultivation, collection, commercial varieties, chemical constituents, substitutes, adulterants, uses, diagnostic macroscopic and microscopic features and specific chemical tests of following groups of drugs:

GLYCOSIDE CONTAINING DRUGS:

Saponins :
Liquorice, ginseng, dioscorea, sarsaparilla, and senega.

Cardioactive glycosides:
Digitalis, squill, strophanthus and thevetia,

Anthraquinone cathartics:
Aloe, senna, rhubarb and cascara,

Others:
Psoralea, Ammi majus, Ammi visnaga, gentian, saffron, chirata, quassia.

ALKALOID CONTAINING DRUGS:

Pyridine-piperidine:
Tobacco, areca and lobelia.

Tropane:
Belladonna, hyoscyamus, datura, duboisia, coca and withania.

Quinoline and Isoquinoline:
Cinchona, ipecac, opium.

Indole:
Ergot, rauwolfia, catharanthus, nux-vomica and physostigma.

Imidazole:
Pilocarpus.

Steroidal:
Veratrum and kurchi.

Alkaloidal Amine:
Ephedra and colchicum.

Glycoalkaloid:
Solanum.

Purines:
Coffee, tea and cola. Biological sources, preparation, identification tests and uses of the following enzymes: Diastase, papain, pepsin, trypsin, pancreatin.

Studies of Traditional Drugs:

Common vernacular names, botanical sources, morphology, chemical nature of chief constituents, pharmacology, categories and common uses and marketed formulations of following indigenous drugs: Amla, Kantkari, Satavari, Tylophora, Bhilawa, Kalijiri, Bach, Rasna, Punamava, Chitrack, Apamarg, Gokhru, Shankhapushpi, Brahmi, Adusa, Atjuna, Ashoka, Methi, Lahsun, Palash, Guggal, Gymnema, Shilajit, Nagarmotha and Neem. The holistic concept of drug administration in traditional systems of medicine. Introduction to ayurvedic preparations like Arishtas, Asvas, Gutikas, Tailas, Chumas, Lehyas and Bhasmas.

General Techniques of Biosynthetic Studies and Basic Metabolic Pathways/Biogenesis:
Brief introduction to biogenesis of secondary metabolites of pharmaceutical importance.

Terpenes:
monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, diterpenes, and triterpenoids.

Carotenoids:
a-carotenoids, ß-carotenes, vitamin A, Xanthophylls of medicinal importance.

Glycosides:
Digitoxin, digoxin, hecogenin, sennosides, diosgenin and sarasapogenin.

Alkaloids:
Atropine and related compounds, Quinine, Reserpine, Morphine, Papaverine, Ephedrine, Ergot and Vinca alkaloids.

Lignans, quassanoids and flavonoids. Role of plant-based drugs on National economy:
A brief account of plant based industries and institutions involved in work on medicinal and aromatic plants in India. Utilization and production of phyto-constituents such as quinine, calcium sennosides, podophyllotoxin, diosgenin, solasodine, and tropane alkaloids. Utilization of aromatic plants and derived products with special reference to sandalwood oil, mentha oil, lemon grass oil, vetiver oil, geranium oil and eucalyptus oil. World-wide trade in medicinal plants and derived products with special reference to diosgenin (disocorea), taxol (Taxus sps) digitalis, tropane alkaloid containing plants, Papain, cinchona, Ipecac, Liquorice, Ginseng, Aloe, Valerian, Rauwolfia and plants containing laxatives. Plant bitters and sweeteners.

Plant Tissue Culture:
Historical development of plant tissue culture, types of cultures, nutritional requirements, growth and their maintenance. Applications of plant tissue culture in pharmacognosy.

Marine pharmacognosy:
Novel medicinal agents from marine sources.
Natural allergens and photosensitizing agents and fungal toxins. Herbs as health foods. Herbal cosmetics. Standardization and quality control of herbal drugs, WHO guidelines for the standardization of herbal drugs.

BIOCHEMISTRY
The concept of free energy, Determination of change in free energy - from equilibrium constant and reduction potential, bioenergetics, production of ATP and its biological significance;

Enzymes:
Nomenclature, enzyme kinetics and their mechanism of action, mechanism of inhibition, enzymes and iso-enzymes in clinical diagnosis;

Co-enzymes:
Vitamins as co-enzymes and their significance. Metals as cofactors and their significance; Carbohydrate Metabolism: Conversion of polysaccharides to glucose-1-phosphate, Glycolysis, fermentation and their regulation, Gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis, Metabolism of galactose and galactosemia, Role of sugar nucleotides in biosynthesis, and Pentose phosphate pathway;

The Citric Acid Cycle:
Significance, reactions and energetics of the cycle, Amphibolic role of the cycle, and Glyoxalic acid cycle;

Lipids Metabolism :
Oxidation of fatty acids, ß-oxidation & energetics, biosynthesis of ketone bodies and their utilization, biosynthesis of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, Control of lipid metabolism, Essential fatty acids & eicosanoids (prostaglandins, thromboxanes and leukotrienes), phospholipids, and sphingolipids, Biosynthesis of eicosanoids, cholesterol, androgens, progesterone, estrogens corticosteroids and bile acids;

Biological Oxidation:
Redox-potential, enzymes and co-enzymes involved in oxidation reduction & its control, The respiratory chain, its role in energy capture and its control, energetics of oxidative phosphorylation. Inhibitors of respiratory chain and oxidative phosphorylation, Mechanism of oxidative phosphorylation;

Metabolism of ammonia and nitrogen containing monomers:
Nitrogen balance, Biosynthesis of amino acids, Catabolism of amino acids, Conversion of amino acids to specialized products, Assimilation of ammonia, Urea. cycle, metabolic disorders of urea cycle, Metabolism of sulphur containing amino acids;

Purine biosynthesis:
Purine nucleotide inter-conversions;

Pyrimidine biosynthesis:
and formation of deoxyribounucleotides;

Biosynthesis of Nucleic Acids:
Brief introduction of genetic organization of the mammalian genome, alteration and rearrangements of genetic material, Biosynthesis of DNA and its replications;

Mutation:
Physical & chemical mutagenesis/carcinogenesis, DNA repair mechanism. Biosynthesis of RNA;

Genetic Code and Protein Synthesis:
Genetic code, Components of protein synthesis and Inhibition of protein synthesis.